1 Introduction

Snakes are crucial for natural balance. This is true in various ecosystems. It not only preys on other animals, but also becomes food for some predators. This can not only regulate population size, but also promote energy flow in the food chain (Reading et al., 2010; Leal-Santos et al., 2024). The snake located in the middle of the food web, like an axis, stabilizes the ecological structure and provides a foundation for the survival of numerous animals and plants.
 

Currently, the global climate is rapidly changing. The temperature continues to rise, rainfall patterns are constantly changing, droughts are becoming increasingly severe, and extreme weather is becoming more frequent. All these changes have had a huge impact on the ecosystem. Due to its body structure, snakes heavily rely on external heat. This makes them very sensitive to climate change. Due to their cold-blooded nature, they require appropriate temperatures to maintain activity and even survive (Winter et al., 2016; Lourenço-De-Moraes et al., 2019). Even minor climate changes can have a significant impact on their survival ability.
 

Snakes are often regarded as indicative species of environmental changes. When the environment is disturbed, they may change habitats, adjust their routines, and even alter their reproductive output; Different species have varying levels of response strength (Biber et al., 2023; Cabral et al., 2024). In areas with the greatest climate pressure, species have already disappeared from their original habitats (Lourenço-De-Moraes et al., 2019; Deng et al., 2024). The latest research also shows that the activity patterns of snakes are being rewritten, which may reshape the operational pattern of the entire ecosystem (Martinez et al., 2024; Liu, 2025).
 

This study will gather the latest knowledge on how climate change is affecting snake habitats and population trends. It will examine the causes of these impacts, examine signs of decline and shifts in snake habitats, and consider the implications for nature and conservation efforts. The study aims to review research across different habitats and snake types, identify areas where more research is needed, and develop ideas to guide future conservation efforts.

2 Basic Characteristics of Snake Ecology and Habitat Selection

2.1 Thermoregulation and thermal ecology dependence

Snakes are cold-blooded animals whose body temperature fluctuates with environmental temperature (Crowell et al., 2021). It is also very sensitive to subtle fluctuations in temperature. Even slight changes can alter its movement, predation, and energy allocation. To maintain a suitable body temperature, specific microenvironments are often selected for residence. When it's cold, they often lie on sunny rocks to keep warm; When the heat comes, hide in the shade of trees or caves to rest (Figueroa-Huitrón et al., 2024). The above trade-offs depend on the stability of habitat temperature (Rowe et al., 2022).
 

Temperature almost affects every aspect of snakes' daily lives. When the temperature is high, activities become more frequent and predation efficiency increases (Moniz et al., 2024). For female snakes carrying their young, warmth is more conducive to the healthy development and survival of the young snakes (Rowe et al., 2022). Some oviparous female snakes will deliberately choose warmer locations to build their nests. After eating, it is recommended to sun dry the back frequently to accelerate digestion (Mizsei et al., 2024). But extreme high temperatures or sudden drops can quickly compress activity time. In high-altitude areas or against the backdrop of habitat damage, adverse weather conditions significantly increase the difficulty of survival (Figueroa-Huitrón et al., 2024).
 

2.2 Diversity of habitat requirements and spatial scale features

Snakes have strong adaptability and can survive in many different terrestrial habitats. They live in caves, trees, wetlands, rivers, and even deserts (Rowe et al., 2022). They have a wide distribution range, which is due to their ability to control body temperature. For example, snakes like the Conopsis lineata live underground to avoid extreme heat. Tree dwelling or ground dwelling snakes will move up and down to search for the optimal temperature. Water snakes use stable water temperature to store energy (Figueroa-Huitrón et al., 2024). When choosing a place of residence, snakes consider macro factors such as terrain type, as well as micro factors such as local temperature and humidity.
 

On a daily and seasonal scale, snakes move between different locations. Taking the western rat snake as an example, it prefers sunny and open areas in spring; In hot summer, it turns to damp forests (George et al., 2017). The grassland rattlesnake has a further displacement and can travel several kilometers across seasons. Its path is influenced by altitude gradients, temperature fluctuations, and terrain patterns (Harvey and Larsen, 2020). It can be seen that it is necessary to protect both the core habitat and the migration channels used with temperature changes.
 

2.3 Inter-species differences and local adaptations

There are significant differences in the response of different snake species to environmental changes. When forest coverage decreases, the number of some species sharply decreases while others remain relatively stable, and this difference mainly depends on the unique ecological habits and microhabitat requirements of each species (Lourenço-De-Moraes et al., 2019; Leal-Santos et al., 2024).

The way snakes reproduce can also affect their survival. In the Atlantic forests of Brazil, the disappearance rate of egg laying snakes is faster than that of viviparous snakes because eggs have extremely strict requirements for temperature and humidity, and even slight fluctuations can affect them (Lourenço-De-Moraes et al., 2019). Appearance is equally important - individuals in areas with strong sunlight tend to have darker colors; Dark pigments account for about 40% of their skin and are used to block harmful sunlight (Goldenberg et al., 2024).

Venom can change with local conditions. In Mojave rattlesnakes, the mix shifts with the prey on hand; the “formula” may include added proteins that fit the setting (Strickland et al., 2018). Hot spring snakes show a similar pattern—within one population, some individuals tolerate high heat much better than others (Yan et al., 2022). Put simply, snakes adjust in two ways. One path is slow: genetic changes build up over generations. The other is fast: physiology shifts with the environment. Both routes help them match local prey and stress. Often, both modes act together.

3 Mechanisms of Climate Change Impact on Snake Habitat Selection

3.1 Rising temperatures and microhabitat use

As the planet gets warmer, many snakes are changing where they live. They now often avoid open, sunny places and prefer cooler spots with shade or thicker plants. This change becomes more obvious during hotter months. Take the western rat snake (Pantherophis obsoletus) in Missouri as an example. In spring, it likes to stay in sunny areas. But when summer comes, it moves into forests with tall trees, where it can better control body temperature and still find food (Figure 1) (George et al., 2017).

Figure 1 Western ratsnakes (Pantherophis obsoletus) are a widespread predator of birds and small mammals in eastern North America (Adopted from George et al., 2017) Image caption: Predation by western ratsnakes has previously been linked to global climate change and habitat fragmentation (Adopted from George et al., 2017)

The latest research in Taiwan provides direct evidence. Monitoring records show that the annual activity period of various snakes in the local area is lengthening. After the winter warms up, the hibernation time of some populations is shortened; In hotter years, the activity period is significantly longer (Liu, 2025). Based on this inference, activity rhythms and movement patterns are being reshaped, and daily habits and natural life cycles may also be disrupted.

In extremely hot areas, snakes avoid moving during daytime. They hide in shade to stay cool. This makes their active time shorter, so they may eat and breed less often (George et al., 2017; Liu, 2025). Some snakes are moving to cooler places to escape the heat - either going up mountains or northward. In Taiwan, snakes have already started moving to higher ground (Liu, 2025).

3.2 Altered rainfall patterns and shrinking humid zones

The rainfall pattern has been rewritten, and moist habitats are becoming increasingly scarce. Rainforest snakes are the first to bear the brunt. Research shows that about 65% of spawning grounds in the forests along Brazil's Atlantic coast may disappear; The oviparous group has the highest risk, as embryos require moist soil and continuous moisture for development (Lourenço-De-Moraes et al., 2019). Similar signals were observed in the dry forest of Granchaco, where the number and diversity of snakes decreased synchronously (Cabral et al., 2024). For species with weak long-distance dispersal ability or strong dependence on specific microhabitats, the threat is more direct.

Reduced rainfall sets off a chain reaction. With less water, prey numbers drop, and the food chain tightens (Jesus et al., 2023). Suitable space keeps shrinking. Different species crowd into small areas, so competition jumps. When wetlands dry, snakes gather in the few that remain. Space compresses further, and populations fall. Computer estimates suggest that only about 30% of snakes in the Atlantic Forest and Gran Chaco regions may still be able to stay in their existing habitats (Lourenço-De-Moraes et al., 2019; Cabral et al., 2024). As species decline and the structure loosens, other animals that rely on them are also disturbed.

3.3 Forest cover changes and shelter imbalance

Large-scale logging is reshaping habitat, and snakes take the hit first. Less canopy means fewer hiding places and harder temperature control (Leal Santos et al., 2024). Where degradation is severe, temperature swings grow, the air is drier, and many populations drop fast.

Habitat fragmentation is just as serious. Continuous forests are cut into patches and turn into isolated “islands.” Edge effects increase, so raptors detect and attack snakes more easily, and extreme weather strikes more directly (Cabral et al., 2024). Food is scarcer, mates are harder to find, and movement routes are blocked—stacked pressures that make survival far more difficult.

Being stuck in small areas also reduces genetic mixing between populations, lowering their diversity (Leal-Santos et al., 2024). As good habitats disappear and areas become more isolated, many snake populations are shrinking—some may even disappear completely.

With less movement between groups, snakes breed with fewer partners. This reduces genetic differences. Over time, snake populations become less able to adapt. Fewer hiding places and restricted movement are making life harder for snakes. Many species may continue to decline if these problems aren't fixed.

4 Population Dynamics and Redistribution Patterns

4.1 Poleward and altitudinal range shifts

As temperatures rise, snakes are moving towards cooler areas. The road death records in Taiwan give a clear signal: the overall trend is moving northward while climbing towards higher altitudes (Liu, 2025). Similar scenes have also appeared in many parts of the world. In Mozambique and Argentina, some venomous snakes are losing their existing habitats while exploring new nearby habitats in marginal areas (Nori et al., 2013; Zacarias and Loyola, 2018). But a new habitat is not a safe choice. The initial conditions may appear promising, but as warming continues, it may evolve into an "ecological trap" that is difficult to sustain in the long term (Archis et al., 2018; Biber et al., 2023).

4.2 Climate-induced changes in reproduction and development

Climate change is also raising the breeding threshold. The fluctuations in temperature and humidity not only slow down the development of snake eggs, but also alter the sex ratio after hatching (Lourenço-De-Moraes et al., 2019). In the Atlantic forests of Brazil, egg laying groups are more deeply affected as their egg stage is more dependent on stable environments. Colder temperate regions are also affected; The decline in reproductive capacity of grass snakes may be related to the ideal temperature window being broken by warming (Elmberg et al., 2024). If this trend continues, population growth may stagnate or even turn into a decline.

4.3 Disruption of predator–prey networks

Securing enough food is getting harder. When snakes move into new places or shift their daily hours, they meet their usual prey less often (Capula et al., 2015). Ongoing habitat loss makes the problem bigger: competition rises, and so does the chance of being hunted (Biber et al., 2023).

In degraded areas, exposure is higher, so capture is easier. Raptors and humans detect snakes more frequently (Zacarias and Loyola, 2018). The effects go beyond snakes themselves—the disturbed food web weakens overall ecosystem stability (Martinez et al., 2024; Liu, 2025).

5 Case Studies of Regional and Species-Specific Responses

5.1 Habitat loss and distribution fragmentation in tropical rainforest snakes

With the continuous degradation of tropical rainforests, snake species are facing severe threats to their survival. In a study of forests along the Atlantic coast of Brazil, it was found that the vast majority of snakes may lose most of their suitable habitats, especially egg laying populations that require higher habitat conditions, and their risks are more prominent (Lourenço-De-Moraes et al., 2019). At present, many existing protected areas have not fully considered the impact of climate factors in their design. Therefore, it is urgent to introduce higher precision tools, such as satellite remote sensing monitoring combined with regional climate models, to optimize protection strategies.

A major issue is the steady loss of natural habitats, which is driving some high-risk snakes in Southeast Asia and Africa into densely populated towns and villages (Martinez et al., 2024). The situation is urgent; action should begin now to stabilize species and keep ecosystems in balance. Practical steps include building cross-regional wildlife corridors, using tracking tools to monitor movements, and setting habitat management plans that can adjust to local conditions (Lourenço-De-Moraes et al., 2019).

5.2 Adaptive strategies in temperate and arid-zone snakes

Living in cool and dry areas, many snakes are responding to climate change in their own ways. Taking the European grass snake as an example, the warming has brought a "double-edged effect": smoother reproduction and wider spread; But the decrease in snowfall makes it more difficult for them to survive through the winter (Elmberg et al., 2024). North American rattlesnakes are also adjusting - changing their wintering shelters, extending or shortening their resting periods, and changing their strategies during predation (Moreno-Rueda et al., 2009). These practices are currently effective; Once warming accelerates, the adaptation speed may be difficult to match (Liu, 2025).

5.3 Narrowing of adaptive limits in high-altitude snakes

Pressure on high-altitude species is building. For the Sichuan mouse snake, dams and water projects have broken the riparian corridor and caused habitat fragmentation (Figure 2) (Song et al., 2023). Suitable areas keep shrinking, and rugged terrain further separates groups, limiting exchange. The Gran Chaco shows a similar pattern: smaller patches hold more species, and competition for food and shelter intensifies (Cabral et al., 2024). The core problem is speed—habitat is vanishing faster than evolution or behavior can adjust, raising the risk of decline.

Figure 2 Distribution of presence points of E. perlacea (Adopted from Song et al., 2023)

6 Conservation Strategies and Future Research Directions

6.1 Habitat diversity maintenance and ecological corridor development

In the context of rapid climate change, building a well connected habitat network has become a key measure to protect snake species. Research on the Atlantic forests of Brazil and the Western Ghats of India shows that a well-designed layout of protected areas can help snakes migrate smoothly to more suitable areas, avoiding environments with high temperatures or scarce resources (Lourenço-De-Moraes et al., 2019). Especially for species with special habitat requirements, detailed habitat protection is needed.

The protection of microhabitat characteristics cannot be ignored. Small scale habitats such as forest cover, caves, and wetlands provide extreme climate shelters for snakes and are key sites for completing their life history (Markle et al., 2020a). The preservation quality of these microhabitats directly affects the reproductive success rate and overwintering survival rate of the population (Markle et al., 2020b).

To make protection work better, focus on two main tracks. First, keep core habitats intact and stable for the long term. Second, keep regions connected and avoid “disconnection” (Srinivasulu et al., 2021). This dual-track approach leaves room for migration and gives species more space to adapt as climates shift (Leal-Santos et al., 2024). When habitat and movement routes are guarded at the same time, populations have a higher chance to survive disturbance.

6.2 Long-term monitoring and predictive modeling

Continuous observation of snake populations over many years can provide key information for their response to climate change. The method does not need to be complicated, focus on stability: record road accident points and public eyewitness reports, gradually outline the timetable and path map of migration (Liu, 2025). These accumulated records help researchers determine whether the migration route or time has shifted.

Researchers also use Species Distribution Models (SDM) to forecast where snakes could live in the future. These computer models flag new suitable areas and mark places with a high risk of human–snake conflict (Zacarias and Loyola, 2018). As more data come in and methods improve, the predictions get sharper. That helps set priorities: create or expand protected areas first, find climate refuges, and choose the best sites for species recovery (Srinivasulu et al., 2021; Biber et al., 2023).

6.3 Integrating climate change into comprehensive conservation assessments

Snake conservation assessments must put climate factors at the center. Looking only at the present is not enough; planning ahead is essential. Blocked migration routes and worsening local climates need early attention (Li et al., 2024). A safer path is to pair climate scenario forecasts with detailed snake ecology. Include movement patterns, physiological limits, and breeding needs (Cabrelli et al., 2014).

Protected areas should be designed with the future in mind. Build wildlife corridors to make seasonal movements safer. Keep key microhabitats intact so nests, warm refuges, and other core resources are protected (Lourenço-De-Moraes et al., 2019). These proactive steps lower current risks and also buffer the ongoing environmental shifts (Leal-Santos et al., 2024).

7 Concluding Remarks

Plenty of research has confirmed that global climate change is making snake habitats worse, causing a clear drop in the amount of suitable living space. This trend is especially serious in areas known for high biodiversity, like Brazil’s Atlantic Forest and the Gran Chaco Dry Woods. As habitat quality keeps getting worse, the number of snake species in these areas goes down, and the ecological roles they play become more alike. This change weakens how well current protected areas can support healthy ecosystems and preserve species. Warmer temperatures and shifting rainfall patterns are pushing many snakes to move toward cooler areas, either at higher elevations or farther from the equator. These movements often disturb their seasonal behaviors and make them more vulnerable to dangerous environments and human activities.

Snakes with different lifestyles react to climate pressure in different ways. Egg-laying snakes, which need steady warmth and moisture to reproduce, are more likely to lose habitat compared to live-bearing species. Snakes in temperate or dry areas often show flexible behavior to cope with change—for instance, they might shift when they’re active, use more shelter, or adjust how they hunt. On the other hand, tropical and high-altitude species usually have a narrow range of tolerance, limited ability to adapt, and face a much higher risk of dying out. A related concern is that certain invasive snakes, like the California king snake, could take advantage of these environmental shifts to grow their range, putting more pressure on native snakes by taking over their resources.

To raise conservation efficiency, bring together climate studies, habitat data, and land-use planning. Keep small, stable habitat patches on the ground and link them with wildlife corridors; during unstable periods these sites give snakes safe shelter and clear routes to move. Use simple, continuous tracking to record where snakes go, then pair those records with models that forecast future change. This can reveal how climate pressures work and point out new high-risk zones. A strong plan should focus on three things: local climate effects, key microhabitat traits, and connectivity between different sites. With this kind of integrated framework, snake populations are more likely to adapt and survive as conditions keep shifting.

Acknowledgments

We sincerely appreciate the valuable opinions and suggestions provided by the two anonymous reviewers, whose meticulous review helped us improve the quality of this article.

Conflict of Interest Disclosure

The authors affirm that this research was conducted without any commercial or financial relationships that could be construed as a potential conflict of interest.

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